Immigration has always been a significant part of human history and it has reflected both the dark side and the underlying opportunities in the newfound lands. Whether it is opportunities for agriculture and trade, or it is the influence of harsh weather or violent conflicts, human beings have always moved from one region to another. The migration phenomenon has played a significant role in the formation of cultures and in bringing changes to various areas in positive and negative manners.
Two countries where I observed that immigration was a core factor in bringing change to many historical events are Pakistan and the United States of America (USA).
A critical look at the ethnic diversity of Pakistan reveals that due to its geographical location, people of various ethnic groups have migrated here centuries before the formation of the modern state. This includes Aryans, Turks, Persians, Mongols, Arabs, and even some Africans and or Europeans. When Pakistan became an independent state in 1947, large groups of Muslim immigrants arrived from Indian regions such as Eastern Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Deccan, and Bihar.
Punjabis coincide but others collide— those who migrated from Eastern Punjab were not too different from the locals of western Punjab and managed to assimilate into the already shared common cultural, ethnic, and linguistic bonds. But the ones from other regions mostly settled in urban Sindh, shared only single common factor with the indigenous people was Islam. Other than this, they were culturally quite different and slowly started to have difficulty coexisting with the natives of Sindh. These immigrants started behaving like a separate community and it gave rise to the construction of their separate identity called mohajir (literally immigrant). Many native Sindhi felt insecure because most of the non-native mohajirs had higher literacy and got better government jobs. Due to this, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a native Sindhi himself) brought the Sindhi Language Act and also made the quota system part of the constitution in 1970 to provide Sindhis more opportunities. This made the middle-class mohajirs insecure and it subsequently led to the formation of the Mohajir Qaumi Movement (later Mutahidda Qaumi Movement or MQM). Politicians and various other actors exploited the evolving polarisation within the polity of the country and consequently exploded into sporadic violent conflicts.
The cross-border unofficial influx from Afghanistan in northwest Pakistan had nothing has been uncommon throughout history and it continued despite the Durand Line demarcation by the British in November 1893
The Urdu-speaking Biharis both from British India and from the dismembered Eastern wing that had become Bangladesh in 1971, spread across Pakistan and maintained their separate identity within the ethnic Urdu-speaking mohajirs. Whereas chunks of Burmese, Gujrati, and Hyderabadi (from Deccan, India) diaspora constituted their communes insignificantly in urban Sindh along with internal migration of ethnic Pashtun.
And then came Afghans— The cross-border unofficial influx from Afghanistan in northwest Pakistan had nothing has been uncommon throughout history and it continued despite the Durand Line demarcation by the British in November 1893 as an international boundary between the two nations. However, the major group of immigrants in Pakistan is the Afghan refugees. During the 1980s, the ‘Jihad’ (holy war) against the Soviet Union’s occupation of Afghanistan was at its peak, and refugees from war-torn Afghanistan poured into Pakistan. The host government welcomed them and allegedly exploited their situation to get aid from the United Nations (UN). These refugees settled in the country mostly permanently while others used Pakistan as a transit destination to emigrate to Europe and North America.
Many of them started businesses or took jobs as laborers and formed communities in the peripheries of major cities like Peshawar, Islamabad, and Karachi. The fact that they acquired properties both in the city centers and urban inhabited slums and took jobs here made many locals insecure. A large number of them engaged in violent crimes such as robbery and killing, and some even got into organised crime like drug trafficking, gun running, and prostitution. This increased the hatred against them and initiated political jargons such as the “drugs and Kalashnikov culture and Afghan refugees are synonymous.”
The government has attempted to provide them with national identity cards and has also tried to deport them (as seen in September 2023: 20,000 refugees were deported according to Human Rights Watch), yet 2.18 million refugees are still living in the country, according to UNHCR, the largest concentration of refugees in a single country.
Emigrant Americans get immigrants— another country well known for immigrants is the US where immigration has been controversial, especially in the recent election, where it was a major bone of contention between the Democrats and Republicans. These days, the former appears to be more inclusive but a simple overview of some prominent migrations in the US history demonstrates that things are not black and white as such.
Long before its formation, the US was inhabited by various Indigenous groups, who had most likely migrated from Asia through the Bering Strait. In the late 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, with the arrival of colonialists such as the English, Spanish, and French, many parts of the modern-day United States became economic hubs and attracted people of various backgrounds. It attracted immigrants of various shades and varieties, whether it was European traders and settlers coming here for economic opportunities and fertile lands, or it was the West African slaves that were forcibly brought here to provide labor for the plantations. Later, the United States of America came into existence and slowly developed into a land of opportunities.
In the late 19th century, especially after the Civil War (which ended in 1865), more and more immigrants arrived. During this time period, the region that attracted immigrants the most was the West. Some parts of this region had become part of the USA much later than other states; therefore, it was seen as an empty land (even though it had people living there, such as Native Americans and Mexicans). Immigrants of various ethnicities came here. It included domestic migrants (i.e., white people from the East Coast, exploring opportunities for agriculture and mining) and Chinese migrants.
Gold was discovered in 1858 in Pikes Peak, Colorado, and similar discoveries happened in other states in the following years, these regions attracted hundreds to thousands of miners but mostly White
Embracing immigrants while discriminating against their own— during this era, it was mostly the Republicans who were in power such as Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses Grant, Chester Arthur, and others. Mostly, the US government, regardless of the party, was open to immigration, and discriminatory laws usually focused on Native Americans and African Americans. These laws were passed by both leaders of different, for instance, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 was passed by Andrew Jackson, a Democrat.
The White migrants came here due to the promise of vast, untamed territory to rear cattle and grow crops. They expected empty land but got into conflict with the Native Americans and Mexicans. As the number of White landowners increased, Mexican landowners slowly lost their status and became part of the labor class. Even today, many Mexicans migrate to the USA (legally and illegally) to find work. Many become a prominent part of the labor force.
Gold influx internal and external migration— When Gold was discovered in 1858 in Pikes Peak, Colorado, and similar discoveries happened in other states in the following years, these regions attracted hundreds to thousands of miners but mostly White. The most prominent Asian external immigration was the arrival of the Chinese in the 1850s. The newly discovered mines in the American West were not the target of the whites only but attracted many Chinese, who worked for lower wages. Prior to the discovery of the mines, the Chinese who arrived in the USA were indentured servants.
Sufferings turned the Chinese towards America— during this era, another major group that migrated in large numbers to the US was the Chinese. Personally, I used to believe that the presence of East Asians in the US was a recent phenomenon. But as I further dived into the sea of US history, I learned that East Asians, particularly the Chinese, have been immigrating to the USA for the past 200-300 years.
The Chinese were suffering from many sociopolitical issues during the 19th century (Taiping Civil War (1850-64) and Opium Wars (1839-42) and (1856-60), and the US was a land of opportunity for them. In 1865, more Chinese arrived due to the construction of the Central Pacific railroad. They formed 90 percent of the labor force and worked in deplorable conditions. After the construction of the railroad, many of them lost their jobs, so they explored other opportunities. Some became parts of criminal gangs called ‘tongs’ while others became domestic servants, factory workers, or did businesses like laundry which required limited English speaking skills. These factors contributed to the growth of Chinese communities called “Chinatowns” in various cities like San Francisco.