Why did Alexander invade the Indus Valley region? Perhaps he had romance with east. As Alexander had a knowledge of mythology and the legendary genealogy of Macedonian kings, he wanted to trace the footsteps of his ancestors like Heracles and Dionysus who once had travelled through this part of India.
Darius III, Emperor of the Persian Empire had, asked his eastern satraps for help in fighting Alexander’s invasion. Unfortunately, Darius was killed by his own generals and courtiers. The eastern provinces including Gandhara and Hindush (Sindh) could not help him timely. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great entered Punjab or the Land of the Five Rivers. He saw that this prosperous land was watered by various rivers like Hydaspes (Jhelum), Akesines (Chenab), Hydraotes (Ravi), Hyphasis (Beas) and Hesidrus (Sutlej). This vast region was inhabited by various autonomous and warlike tribes ie Spitakes, Arashtra, Kathians, Sibai, Malloi, Oxydrakai, Sabagrae, Sodrae and Massani who were deeply divided by blood feuds with each other. There were many kingdoms which were ruled by powerful chiefs. They had their own laws and principles followed by the public.
These kingdoms were
- the Kingdom of Taxiles, locally known as Ambhi (Omphis), whose capital was at Takshashila or Taxila
- the Kingdom of Kashmir under King Abhisares
- the Kingdom of Porus between the Indus and the Hydaspes (Jhelum)
- the Kingdom of Sophytes, whose realm was in the south of Jhelum River.
King Taxiles surrendered to Alexander to obtain his help in defeating his rival King Porus. Plutarch confirms that this was the time when Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), a young warrior, met Alexander and gave him his opinion about his eastern expedition. Later, we see that this youth laid the foundation of the Mauryan Empire in India, which is famous for uniting the Indian Subcontinent. Alexander also encountered Dandamis, the leader of the naked philosophers of Taxila. He took Kalanos with him back to Babylon.
Alexander left Taxila and marched through modern Rawalpindi/Islamabad and finally reached Jhelum. Later Greek accounts about Alexander’s invasion of India became classical works that are worth reading, because these are full of valuable information about the land, its mountains, rivers, crops, tribes, sages, “mouthless ones,” “dogheads,” trees, elephants, unicorns, crocodiles, dogs, serpents, peacocks, hoopoes and gold-digging ants etc. Today, we don’t see Alexander’s cities, altars or inscriptions or his soldier’s graves. Whether the same is the case for Porus is debatable.
Where was the Kingdom of Porus?
Who was King Porus? According to some historical records, Porus was king of the Pauravas or Purus, a Vedic tribe who originated from the Aryans. They are said to have originated from Central Asia. Michael Witzel and others opine that this tribe existed as marginal power in Punjab after their defeat in the Battle of the Ten Kings. Perhaps he was one of the last members of this dynasty. Where was his capital? We don’t know exactly but some believe that it was located around Lahore. According to Indian oral traditions, King Porus had three sons, namely 1. Ajay 2. Vikram and 3. Malyketu. The first two sons were killed by Alexander’s soldiers on the battlefield, while only one son called Malyketu survived the battle. Later on, in 317 BC, King Porus was assassinated by Eudemus, who was one of the generals of Alexander. Malyketu, the son of Porus, killed Eudemus as revenge.
Unfortunately, today we don’t know much about this great warrior of the Indus Valley, who proved tougher than Darius III, the Emperor of the Persian Empire. Mr Karim Nawaz was Deputy Commissioner Gujarat in 1965 who believed that Village Shah Ghora (The Royal Horse) is the site close to Mangla where Alexander crossed the River Jhelum.
Advance to the Hydaspes River
In the Summer of 326 BC, Alexander ordered his army to ascend from the bank of the Hydaspes and reach an island located in it. The island or large sand bank was covered with Tamarisk bushes due to the rainy season. Now, the bluff and the island were 150 stadia distant from the royal camp. The sentries were posted on the bank of the river. Everywhere, there were shouts at night and burning fires. Alexander needed a safe passage to attack Porus’ army, which was standing on the other side of the river. There were Krateros with his division of the cavalry, and the Arakhosian and Parapamisadan horsemen, together with the brigades of the Macedonian phalanx commanded by Alketas and Polysperchon, and the contingent of 5,000 men under the chiefs of the Indians. Alexander had ordered Krateros not to attempt to cross the river before Porus moved off against them, or before learning that he was flying from the field, and that they were victorious.
The above mentioned island of Alexander was discovered in 1849 by British officials and historians. This island was situated opposite to Kotera: it was 2 miles in length and half a mile in breadth, which still existed as a large sand bank. The village of Kotera was located 1 mile below Dilawar. According to Sir Alexander Cunningham’s four reports made during the years 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865, Vol 2, Simla (published 1871), “Now, rocks are still to be found in the river only at Kotera, Meriala, Malikpur, and Shah Kabir, all of which places are between Dilawar and Jalalpur.”(pg 182)
The Battle of the Hydaspses and Porus’ arrangements
Meleager, Attalos and Gorgias were posted with mercenaries and cavalry between the camp and the island. Alexander took with him his famed Companion cavalry, and the regiments of cavalry under Hephaistion, Perdikkas and Demetrios. He was also accompanied by Bactrian, Sogdian and Scythian cavalry. There were also Daan horse archers, a phalanx of infantry the hypaspists, the brigade of Kleitos and Koinos, the archers and the Agrianians. He moved with these troops towards Porus’ army. A violent rain storm and thunder came on that night which disturbed the Macedonians from every direction. The next day, soldiers crossed the river through the skin pontoons, boats and thirty oared galleys. Alexander himself embarked on a thirty-oared galley in the company of Ptolemy, Perdikkas, Lysimachos, Seleukos and others.
Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), a young warrior, met Alexander and gave him his opinion about his eastern expedition. Later, we see that this youth laid the foundation of the Mauryan Empire
Now, Alexander ordered 6,000 men to follow him for a fight with the son of Porus at the landing place. Aristoboulos says that the son of Porus arrived with about 60 chariots before Alexander made the final passage from the large island of the river. Arrian writes, “The son of Porus arrived at the head of 2,000 men and 120 chariots and that Alexander had made even the final passage from the island before the prince appeared upon the scene.” (pg 101)
Death of King Porus’ son in the battlefield
Arrian, presenting battlefield details under the title “The arrangements made by Poros for the conflict” writes, “He then took all his cavalry, 4,000 strong, all his chariots, 300 in number, 200 of his elephants, and 30,000 efficient infantry, and marched against Alexander.” (pg 102)
Charles Rollin writes in his book The ancient history of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Macedonians, and Grecians (1815): “The Indians lost on this occasion 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, not to mention the chariots which were all broke to pieces, and the elephants that were either killed or taken. Porus’ two sons fell in this battle with Spitacus, governor of the province; all the colonels of horse and foot, and those who guided the elephants and chariots. As for Alexander, he lost but 80 of the 6,000 soldiers who were at the first charge, 10 bowmen of the horse, 20 of his horse guards and 200 common soldiers.” (pg 194).
During this engagement, around 80 elephants were captured alive. Alexander also acquired additional 70 war elephants due to late arrival of reinforcements called for by Porus after the battle was already over. These animals were offered as tribute to Alexander.
King Porus was captured and brought before the conqueror. Alexander asked him how he expected to be treated. Porus replied “Like a king.” Alexander was pleased by this reply. He restored to him his kingdom with additional areas.
Death of Alexander’s beloved horse Bucephalus
Bucephalus served Alexander from the plains of Macedonia to the mountains of Iran, Afghanistan and India. Describing the death of Alexander’s horse Bucephalus, Philip Freeman writes in his book entitled Alexander the Great (2011): “It was a brutal battle waged savagely in mud and blood with heavy casualties on both sides. At one point, Alexander was riding Bucephalus when the old horse was struck by a spear and mortally wounded. The king was too busy to mourn, so he switched to another mount and continued the fight. When the Indian lines began to break, Craterus, quickly crossed the river and came up behind to cut off the Indian retreat.” (pg 275)
Arrian’s History of the Expedition of Alexander the Great, and Conquest of Persia (London, 1812) provides some details. These details are given in Chapter XV:
“Other authors relate that the Indians, who accompanied Porus’s son, attacked Alexander and his body of horse, as soon as they set foot upon the bank; and as he had the greatest part of the forces with him, Alexander himself there received a wound, and his horse Bucephalus, which he exceedingly prized, was slain by Porus’s son”. (pg 136)
Bucephala and Nicaea: Foundation of two cities by Alexander
Alexander was so aggrieved by the death of his beloved horse that he promptly founded a city Alexandria Bucephala, in honour of his horse. Bucephala or Boukephala was founded in the memory of Alexander’s horse, while another city was called Nikaia from the victory (Nike being the goddess of victory).
A gold coin depicting Bucephalus was issued by Seleucus I Nicator, a general of Alexander who became Indian ruler after the death of Alexander the Great. Bucephalus helped Alexander the Great establish the largest empire the world had ever known, stretching 17,000 miles from Alexandria to Ferghana and from Macedonia to India. He took Alexander on campaign from regions where the temperatures reached 120 degrees Fahrenheit to the cool ice and snow of the Hindu Kush, travelling across grassland and marshland, through desert and monsoon. Alexander halted at Porus’ domains for 30 days to recruit and replenish his army.
The exact location of Bucephala and Nicaea was a matter of dispute in antiquity. Most likely Bucephala was 40 kilometres south of the city of Jhelum on the west bank of the Jhelum River, at the modern site of Jalalpur. An old ruined fort on the top of the hill once stood during the British era in 1860s.
These cities were built on the banks of Hydaspes (Jhelum) River and opposite to each other. Nicaea was founded on the battle site. We see that Bucephala frequently appears in the list of city foundations attributed to Alexander at the end of most recessions of the Alexander Romance and the later traditions. Some historians have called Nicaea as Alexandreia Porus. Tarn, who made use of the list at the end of the Alexander Romance, assumed that Alexandreia by Porus should be equated with Nikaia (Alexander 2:243)
A top attraction in today’s Jhelum is the Alexander Monument and Research Centre which was built by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with the Embassy of Greece to incorporate elements of Greek architecture in 1997.
In The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India (2013), Getzel M Cohen points out: “Arrian also says that Alexander placed Krateros in charge of the actual construction and fortification of the settlements. Diodorus adds that the settlements were built quickly because there were plenty of workers available. After Alexander left the region and marched eastward both cities were damaged by rain; upon his return he repaired them.”
Aelian (NA 16.3) mentions the fact that there were Macedonians settled in Boukephala. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (47) gives the reference of Boukephalos Alexandreia, an indication that it still existed in the 1st century AD. This city, called Girivraja or Girivrajaka, later acquired the name of Gagirakhi or Girjhakh, meaning “elephant place.” Finally it was named Jalalpur by its ruler Malik Darwesh Khan Janjua in honour of Mughal Emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, who once visited this town.
About 10 miles above Jalalpur, there is a ruined city with 2 mounds, called Darapur, which is described by Burnes and Court in their travels. The Mughals hunted wild beasts from Girjhak to Bhera, a distance of 25 kos.
Bhera Mound is the place where Alexander met with his generals Kraterus and Hephaistion. Nowadays, both of the ancient cities Bucephalus and Nicaea are called Mong Phalia by the local people. According to A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier (Vol 2, 1911), the Awans of the Salt Range and the Gakkhars of Jhelum are descended from Bactrian Greeks (See 25 and 274). Similarly, the Dahiya, Hakla, Jahangiri, Karral, Ketwal and Kharoti also claim descent from Alexander. According to Sir Aurel Stein, some coins of Greek kings and Indo-Scythians were also found from Jalalpur during the 19th Century AD.
Alexander conquers 37 cities of the Glausai tribe
After this, Alexander attacked a tribe called Glausai or Glaukanikoi. Their country lay next to the domains of Porus, up to south Kashmir. They lived between the rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Akesines (Chenab). Historical records tell us that Alexander invaded their country with half of hhis elite Companion Cavalry, selected men from each phalanx of the infantry, all the horse archers, the Agrianians, and others. Everywhere, people surrendered on terms of capitulation. Alexander subjugated the 185,000-strong populations of Glausai with force and their realm was added to that of King Porus.
Arrian says, “In this manner he took seven and thirty (37) cities, the smallest of which contained not fewer than 5,000 inhabitants, while many contained upwards of 10,000. He took also a great many villages which were not less populous than the towns; and this country he gave to Porus to rule. And between him and Taxiles he effected reconciliation. He then sent Taxiles home to his capital.” (112)
At this time, envoys from Abisares came, who surrendered himself and his whole realm to Alexander. Abisares sent his brother and envoys, taking with them money and 40 elephants as a present.
Here, envoys also arrived from the independent Indians. There came also envoys from Sisikottos, the Satrap of the Assakenians, reporting that these people had slain theirgovernor and revolted against Alexander. Philippo and Tyriaspes were sent to crush the revolt.
Alexander’s march against the Kathians and his taking of Pimprama
Alexander had learnt that the Kathians and other independent tribes were preparing for battle. He also learned that the city near which they meant to engage him was strongly fortified, and was called Sangala.
Arrian says, “The Kathians themselves enjoyed the highest reputation for courage and skill in the art of war, and the same warlike spirit characterised the Oxydrakai, another Indian race, and the Malloi or Mallians, who were also an Indian race, for when shortly before this time Poros and Abisares had marched against them with their armies, and had besides stirred up many of the independent Indians against them, they were obliged, as it turned out, to retreat without accomplishing anything at all adequate to the scale of their preparations.” (115)
Alexander received intelligence information and marched quickly against the Kathians. On the second day after he had left the Hydaspes River, he arrived at a city called Pimprama. It belonged to the Adraistai or Aratrioi, an Indian race. They surrendered on terms of capitulation.
Then, Alexander passed through forests and deserts and finally crossed the Hydraotes (Ravi). The people of Kathia tribe lived in the Sahiwal, Jhang and Multan regions. Many Kathias or Cathaei left Sindh and entered modern day Indian Gujarat. There, they founded Kathiawar State in Saurashtra.
Siege of Sangala
On the third day of this march, Alexander advanced to Sangala. He posted ready the cavalry regiment of Kleitos and the corps of horse guards. The left wing he assigned to Perdikkas with his own cavalry and foot guards.
As the trumpet sounded the alarm, Ptolemy with his men fell upon the Indians and killed them. The Kathians slunk out from their wagons. After a fierce battle, the Indians fled to their city for refuge but 500 of them were slain during the retreat.
Meanwhile, King Porus also arrived on the scene with his 5,000-strong force and war elephants. He also brought with him siege engines which were brought to the walls. The Macedonians took the city with storm by undermining the walls of the fortress.
Arrian indicates that a military cantonment was established by Alexander’s forces at Sangala. He states, “In the capture, 17, 000 of the Indians were slaughtered, and more than 70,000 were captured, together with 300 waggons and 500 horsemen. The loss in Alexander’s army during all the siege was somewhat under 100 killed, but the proportion of the wounded to the number killed was higher than the usual, for there were 1,200 wounded, including some officers, and among these Lysimachos, a member of the body guard.” (119)
After that, Alexander, having buried the dead according to custom, sent Eumenes, his secretary, in command of 300 horsemen to the two cities which had revolted along with Sangala. Before the arrival of the Macedonians, the inhabitants of these cities had left their homes and were in flight. Alexander’s army chased those fleeing and slaughtered 500 of them on their way. After this, Alexander razed the city of Sangala to ground. Afterwards, Alexander sent Porus to various cities to ask them for surrender.
Where was Sangala? Charles Masson (d. 1853) mistakenly found the ruins of Sagala (Sakala) or Sangala on the present Archaeological Site of Harappa, 60 miles south-west of Lahore. On the other hand, there was Alexander Burnes (d 1841), who placed this ancient site at Lahore. Some others have identified it with Amritsar. According to Cohen (2013), Sangala /Euthymedia was probably at the modern site of Sialkot.
(to be continued)