Arts and architecture are direct reflections of the societies that produce them: every culture brings its own nuances into its buildings, its gardens and the objects of art it creates.
The enclosed and symmetrically organised gardens that the Mughals built were based on a philosophy thousands of years old, that germinated and blossomed in the Persian cultural sphere.
In Persia the first recorded gardens go back to at least the 6th century BCE. Gardens are considered a natural and complete means of recreation. Zoroaster, who propagated a profound philosophy that impacted the Persian culture in its entirety, talked about gardens as a place of recreation, a place of spirituality where the soul and the body can connect with nature in peace and harmony. Legend has it that Zoraster had tended and cultivated a garden in a barren landscape. The ancient Persian philosophy is based on this concept of creating a paradise of water channels and pleasant flora and fauna: not merely in places where nature has created such an arrangement, but where the land put up challenges for humankind. And humanity, therefore, creates a pairidaeza (paradise) of its own. Intervening or spoiling what nature has created itself on Earth was considered an uncivilised act. Early Persians lived in harmony with the jungles and oasis that the land offered but created these gardens of pleasure where there were none. The nomadic lifestyle, too, created an urge for many gardens on the route where the pastoral nomads usually wandered.
The layout of the gardens from the time of Cyrus at Pasargadae
The Achaemenid rulers continued building such gardens, where along with the beautiful flowers and fauna, herbal plants were also grown for medicinal uses and so on.
Pasargadae was commissioned by Cyrus the Great in 559-530 BCE. In this ancient city, which also hosts Cyrus’s tomb, the Pasargadae gardens were laid out. This is where the world saw the Persian Chahar Bagh garden design for the first time. Chahar Bagh is a quadrilateral design containing four gardens within a given space, divided by axial water channels and pathways that intersect at the center of the square. These four gardens within a quadrilateral are the most prominent design feature of a Chahar Bagh. It is interesting to note that Cyrus was also called the “King of Four Quarters”. Arberry in The Legacy of Persia writes that the Greek Admiral Lysander (d.395 BCE) had visited Darius’s son Cyrus the Younger (died in 401 BCE). Cyrus entertained Lysander in his Chahar Bagh garden. Lysander was highly impressed by the Charhar Bagh’s beautiful trees, the symmetry of the rows of flower bushes and trees and the fragrance of blossoms in the garden. He was totally enchanted by the serenity of the garden.
The Chahar Bagh concept retained its vitality for several centuries: the gardens around Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal are two most famous Mughal Chahar Bagh examples. From roughly the same period, the Chahar Bagh-i-Abbasi in Esfahan, built by Shah Abbas of Persia in 1596, is a spectacular example of this particular type of garden from Iran.
The Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir, built by Emperor Jahangir
In ancient Iran, the Sassanid Dynasty (224-651 CE) continued the tradition of gardening and built some of the most magnificent gardens based on the philosophy of Mandala design. The Mandala is a design in cosmic pattern. Mandala is considered a spiritual space in the universe. It is contained in a square with four gates surrounding a circular space. Inside the circle is a point of focus. The Mandala design that the Persians used in their gardens is another piece of joint heritage that ancient India shares with ancient Iran.
In the 7th century CE, Islam came to Persia, bringing not only new nuances but also a diverse cultural heritage to the design of the gardens.
When Mughals started building gardens in the Indian subcontinent, they had this rich heritage in their past on which they based their gardens.
Babur supervising the construction of a garden
Babur (1483-1530 CE) the first Mughal Emperor, did not like the fact that there were no gardens in his newly conquered kingdom in India. Babur’s ancestors, who lived in the Persianate cultural realm had laid out delightful gardens in the past. Lisa Golombek in Gardens of Timur writes of the Central Asian conqueror’s interest in this field. The biographical work Zafarnama mentions that Timur (1336-1405 CE) had constructed many gardens in Samarqand: Bagh-i-Bihist, Bagh-i-Dilkusha, Bagh-i-Nau and Bagh-i-Daulatabad to name a few. Irshad-al-Zira talks about the continuation and evolution of Timur’s garden design in Herat by his descendants, during the late Timurid period. This document could even have been the basis on which the Mughal gardens were structured in India. Timur’s descendant Hussain Bayqara (1438-1506) had built numerous gardens in Herat. When Babur ascended the Timurid throne, it was only natural for him to also build comely gardens as the king of Kabul. And so, in Kabul Babur built the Bagh-i-Wafa, Bagh-i-Banafshan and Bagah-i-Padshahi which were famous. The Baburnama documents many gardens that he built in his kingdom in India. Babur had some gardens built even as he camped on his way to Delhi! After he conquered Delhi, a new era of building gardens emerged in India. The most magnificent gardens laid out by Babur were in the environs of Agra. Bagh-i-Hast Bahisht was a spectacular garden laid out by Babur at Agra. Many others that he built in Agra are no more. Another beautiful garden, Bagh-i-Nilofer, was built by Babur in Dholpur and he laid another exquisite garden to celebrate his victory in India at Fatehpur Sikri, it was accordingly called Fateh Bagh. Babur’s Bagh-i-Gul Afshan in Agra is probably the only garden built by him that has survived today. It is said that perhaps Babur died in that garden and was temporarily buried under a pavilion in another garden, Bagh-i- Zarafshan; that pavilion is still partially preserved. Kamran Mirza, one of Babur’s sons, did come to the tomb in 1539 to offer his respects. Kamran then moved Babur’s remains to Kabul. Of course, Humayun (1508-1566), Babur’s eldest son and successor; and Akbar (1542-1605), Humayun’s son who consolidated Mughal rule in India and expanded his empire further, both built gardens continuing the Mughal tradition.
The Persianate Chahar Bagh layout was often used in Mughal gardens
In Jahangir's Nishat Bagh, at Srinagar, the twelve terraces correspond to the signs of the zodiac
It was not only the emperors who built gardens, but also the princes and princesses of the Mughal dynasty who indulged in creating these paradises, where they entertained guests and spent personal time for recreation. One of the most magnificent gardens to mention is the garden around Humayun’s tomb (1569-70) in Delhi, though sometimes attributed to Akbar or to Humayun’s first wife Haji Begum; it was built by Humayun’s wife Hamida Banu Begum. The magnitude and symmetry of the garden is spectacular. This garden emerged as a prototype for designing many delightful gardens thereafter.
Although Akbar (1542-1605) probably did not commission Humayun’s tomb, in 1586 he did build a spectacular, terraced garden the Naseem Bagh in Srinagar. Bianca Alfieri talks about that and other Mughal gardens in her book. Later, Akbar’s favourite grandson Shah Jahan planted hundreds more Chinar trees in Naseem Bagh, which delight visitors even today. Another garden built in Akbar’s time – and which has survived – is the Aam Khas Bagh in Sirhind. This garden was completed in 1580. Based on Chahar Bagh garden plan, the Aam Khas garden complex was built probably as a caravan serai. The Aam Khas is divided in to three parts and is laden with fruit trees, pools to cool off in the summer heat and delightful fountains and waterfalls. The water was supplied by wells especially built to nurture this garden. Those wells are still functional today and continue to supply all of the garden’s water requirements. In 1617, Akbar’s son and successor Jahangir added beautiful pavilions and graceful baths to the garden. He also planted more trees which provided shade. In 1628 Shah Jahan, Jahangir’s son and successor, stayed at Aam Khas Bagh and ordered the construction of the sparkling Sheesh Mahal and other handsome buildings. Shah Jahan ordered the construction of many platforms on the reflecting pools, known as Mehtabi Chaubutra, where the Emperor and other royals would enjoy the reflection of the moon in the water around the platform and on many an occasion would be entertained by musicians. There was a Mughal garden in Kalnaur which is hardly there today, but it played a very important role in the context of Akbar the Great. In that Mughal garden, the fourteen year old Akbar was crowned the Emperor of Hindustan.
The fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir (1569-1627) continued the tradition, building splendid gardens in his vast empire. He created new gardens and added to already existing ones built by his father, grandfather and great grandfather.
His first wife, sister of Raja Man Singh, committed suicide. Jahangir built a beautiful mausoleum for her in Allahabad, surrounded by a wondrous garden called Khusrau Bagh.
Jahangir commissioned a marvelous mausoleum for his father Akbar. The mausoleum, which was completed in 1613, is situated in a grand Chahar Bagh garden.
In 1619 Jahangir built the Nur Manzil garden.
The Shalimar Gardens in Lahore are a famous example of Mughal aesthetic sense - Image courtesy - Saffy H on flickr
One of the magnificent gardens built by the Mughals was located in the valley of Kashmir, commissioned by Emperor Jahangir. Akbar had built a fort in Srinagar on the Dal Lake, called the Hari Parbat Fort. Jahangir built a prodigious terraced garden in this fort. Mohammad Khan designed the three terraces and the pavilions built there were decorated by the finest court artists. This garden was called Nur Azfar by Jahangir, as a tribute to the symbolism of light. The symbol of light or Nur was held in high esteem by the Mughals. Nishat Bagh was built during Jahangir’s reign overlooking the Dal Lake in Srinagar. This garden was planned on a vast piece of land. The 12 terraces of the garden correspond to the 12 zodiac signs. It was planned so as to be seen from the level of the lake. From there the rising terraces could be seen in the magnificent aura of the snow-clad mountains. Water plays a pivotal role in the garden. A 10-metre wide canal is the center of attraction, fed by numerous sub-canals, each carrying water from the waterfalls from the 12 zodiac terraces. There are reflecting pools and benches are made on waterways. Water passes beneath them, delighting one’s soul. The garden is filled with Chinar trees which especially bring joy to the visitors in autumn, when the leaves turn into fiery shades of reds, oranges and yellows.
Two resplendent gardens at Achabal (1627) and Vernag (1609) in Kashmir were also built by Jahangir, who was enchanted by the beauty of the valley. Jahangir was quite enamoured by the beauty of Kashmir, no doubt agreeing with Amir Khusrau when he said:
[“If there is a Heaven on Earth, it is here, it is here, it is here!”]
Jahangir’s son Shah Jahan (1592-1666) is considered the most magnificent of the Mughals as far as the arts and architecture are concerned. The gardens that he built around the Taj Mahal, mausoleum of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, are among the very finest. Some of his less discussed gardens, but nonetheless of immense beauty, were built in Shahdara in Lahore. Shah Jahan built his father Jahangir’s mausoleum in a garden that was once on the banks of the River Ravi. The garden is divided into 16 intersections, where each intersection is adorned with a water pool and a fountain. The flower beds had varied flowers in each section. The mausoleum was constructed in the centre of the garden. The Gulabi Bagh built in Lahore is now just a remnant of its original self. And Chauburji Garden, which was probably dedicated to Princess Jahanara, is lost to history too – but for a few signs that are left. In Srinagar, Shah Jahan built the Shalimar Garden, which was reached by a canal. Rich foliage and beautiful trees flanked both sides of this one-mile-long canal that emerged from Lake Dal. The canal culminated in a pool which, in its centre, hosted a graceful black marble pavilion surrounded by water and fountains. The Emperor held public meetings in this pavilion. The water from the surrounding pool flows into another canal which leads to the most comely part of the garden in the private zenana area, where the Emperor and the royal family enjoyed the most beautiful of flowers and herbs under an alluring marble pavilion. This garden creates an incredible sense of serenity and peace, so it was called Farah Baksh and Faiz Baksh.
Shah Jahan, of course, went on to build another exquisite garden, the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore (1633-42).
Gardens were not built just for a stroll or a visit. They were meant to be imbibed and to be absorbed into one’s soul. The Mughals entertained their guests in the gardens. Lavish royal parties were often hosted in beautiful garden environment. The walls around the enclosed structure created an ambience of pleasure and spirituality – contained within that space. The high walls were barriers against strong winds and dust, while the trees were protectors against the scorching heat and sun, thus combing to create a tranquil space as a refuge.
The gardens were also used for camping during long journeys.
The water was a symbol of purity and life. Water played the most important role as it flowed in the canals and waterways throughout the setting of the garden – from the smooth slabs of marble inlaid with precious stones into rectangular ponds, creating ripples and a mesmerising sound that was soothing to the senses. Water would erupt into joyful spurts from the many fountains in the Mughal gardens, creating a sense of festivity. The trees were planted as part of this precise planning of the environment, bearing in mind their contribution to the garden and for the symbolism that they represented.
The cypress tree, for instance, is a symbol of immortality in the ancient Persian culture. Cypress trees were planted along the walkways with the fruit trees because their spring blossoms were a reminder of the continuation and renewal of life. Thus the fruit-bearing trees would complement the Cypresses’ immortality.
The water channels signifying the purity of soul usually emptied into a pond. Water was the primary source of life and its importance was profound in the cultures that were nourished in arid environments.
Thus the Achaemenid Empire had created these enclosures of paradise in the ancient world and centuries later, the Mughals brought them to India. And with India’s vast and unique variety of flora and fauna; immense natural resources of marble and precious stones; highly capable artisans and a culture that had foundations as deep as the Achaemenids’ own; the magnificent Mughals created sanctuaries of sublime beauty in the form of delectable gardens.
